Their target was, rather, the more fragile crenellations (battlements) of a wall or the men standing behind them. Mangonels could launch a boulder towards the enemy but, generally, not one heavy enough to destroy a wall. There were various metal parts of steel, bronze, and iron, but it is not known exactly how or where they were used. The rope was pulled down and so the arm made ready to spring by one or several men (or women in one recorded siege). The standard construction, based on medieval illustrations and descriptions in manuscripts, involved a single arm with an oxhide sling or bucket attached which was sprung by the tension of a twisted rope. Quite how the medieval European version of the mangonel was arrived at is much-debated, and different armies likely had their own variations in particulars of design. Mangonels launched boulders towards the more fragile crenelLations (battlements) of a wall or the men standing behind them. The Roman version, known as an onager, was similar but used animal gut instead of rope to provide the torsion. It is the Chinese who are credited with inventing the mangonel between the 5th and 3rd century BCE. The Islamic armies had contact with both India and China, as did the Avars. The MangonelĬatapults or mangonels, as they are sometimes called (although the precise terminology for medieval artillery is confusing with no unanimous agreement - then and now - on what machine should carry which name), were based on ancient designs and widely used from the 11th century CE as European kingdoms came into increasing contact with the Byzantine Empire, the Islamic armies as they entered Spain, and the Avars of Eurasia. Deadly accurate with their sophisticated trigger mechanisms, they were ideal for guarding weak points such as gates. A more powerful version of the ballista was the espringal, which had two separate bow arms pulled back by winched ropes and which could fire large, metal-tipped arrows weighing up to 1.4 kilos (3 lbs) or even stones. With three floors to a tower, a respectable fusillade of bolts could be reigned down on the enemy. However, as they were not much use at penetrating stone, ballistas were used more by the defenders as they had the advantage of being more compact than a catapult, and so three could fit into a single floor of a tower. 1492-1503 CE) was accused of such tactics during the siege of Ostie in 1498 CE.Ī skilled ballista shooter could pick off imprudent individuals on battlements, and this resulted in wooden shutters being added to fortification walls for extra protection. In the 15th century CE, there was even the use of sulphur gas to drive the defenders out of their retreat - Pope Alexander VI (r. Catapults might launch manure and corpses in the hope of spreading disease amongst the enemy. 1413-1422 CE) famously had dead animals thrown into the wells of Rouen in France during his siege of 1418-19 CE in order to foul the water supply. There were also other strategies besides the brute force of launching heavy objects at the enemy. Wooden walls at the front of the machine offered some protection for the operators, but a direct hit from a boulder could easily disable a catapult.Īside from physical damage, the sight of a battery of artillery machines being assembled in full view must have been a daunting one for those under siege. If the defenders had their own artillery, then they would be used to target the attacker's machines. Archers and crossbowmen could fire with great accuracy and pick off artillery operators. In the typical siege situation, the range of artillery was not huge and perhaps explains why artillery machines are usually depicted very close to a defensive wall in medieval illustrations and why those operating them needed some form of protection. Gunpowder-projected missiles of all sizes became the norm, finally ending the knight's and bowmen's long domination of the medieval battlefield. Cannons were used from the 13th century CE, and although they were highly dangerous to use and largely ineffective because of their lack of accuracy, by the 15th century CE, technology had improved dramatically. Used by both attackers and defenders during siege warfare, batteries of artillery caused devastation to people and fortifications. The trebuchet arrived from the late 12th century CE, which was similar to the mangonel but used a counterweight as a means to propel missiles further and with greater accuracy. As armies battled further afield such as in the Byzantine Empire and against the Arab caliphates, in particular, so new ideas spread from China and India across Eurasia and into western Europe. Artillery weapons in medieval Europe included the mounted crossbow (ballista) and single-arm torsion catapult (mangonel), both similar to ancient Roman machines.
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